Implementing e-portfolios in the English as a foreign language classroom

Abstract

This proposal proposes the prospective implementation of e-portfolios at school in pursue of helping learners become more skilled language learners and language users. Thus, the focus will be on collaborative learning as a strategy to tackle the different purposefully communicative tasks. The study will be conducted in a state-run school with students who attend first year of Secondary school. Students’ productions will be part of their e-portfolios which will mirror the learner’s progress and achievements. The concept of self-assessment is of great value as it lets learners reflect on their own learning process.

Key words: E-portfolio-collaborative learning-communicative tasks- self-assessment

Introduction

The field of education has witnessed great paradigm shift in recent years.  Considerable emphasis is placed on interactionist and social views of the learning process considering the interaction between the learner and peers, the center of this complex teaching and learning process. The term complex, refers to the various but interrelated factors that affect the process of learning. Bearing in mind aspects such as students’ cognitive level, the learners’ needs and interests among others, when delving into teaching and learning English as a Second Language (ESL) theories and the interaction among students and others, turns this issue of upmost importance (Brown, 2000).

The social constructivist models that are related to current approaches consider of great importance the relationship “between learners and their peers and their teachers and others with whom they interact” (Brown, 2000 p. 287). In this perspective the e-portfolio, a pedagogic tool, which focuses on collaborative learning, is gradually widely implemented due to the ease of accessibility to information and communication technologies.

Similarly, The European Language Portfolio (ELP) states that portfolios have a pedagogic language and reporting function emphasizing a reflective methodology which promotes self-assessment and student autonomy as well ( Kohonen, 2001).

 However, a successful implementation of this work depends on the teacher’s ability to guide learners in their productions while encouraging autonomous learning. The purpose of this research is to shed light on how the usage of e-portfolios combined with collaborative learning help students, inside a classroom environment, become more skilled language users due to the project long-term implications.

Literature Review

Foreign/Second language education has undergone various changes. Constructivist or social Interactionist views in language teaching and learning have become crucial to promote life-long learning while learning-to-learn skills constitute the basis of educational goals in different learning contexts.

At present, researchers center their attention to a paradigm known as Communicative Learning Teaching (CLT).  This paradigm, aims attention to the usage of communicative competences so as to interest learners in the “pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes” (Brown, 2000, p. 286).

Brown (2000) argues that in communicative classroom contexts, learners are guided to use the language efficiently under the teacher’s guidance. In this regard, modern technologies (video, the internet, computer software) may become useful resources for teachers trying to keep learners purposely embarked on language learning and use.

With reference to this issue, considerable appraisal is given to computer-assisted language learning (CALL) as a complement for language learning. Though this approach has sequentially developed over the last decades, major attention should be given to the Integrative Phase of CALL (Warschauer, 1996). Within this phase, the implementation of multimedia computers and the internet have made this approach a powerful tool.

In the case of hypermedia, it provides various advantages for language learning since a wide variety of skills may be combined in one activity. Thus, students experience a feeling of autonomous learning as they are capable of moving forwards or backwards over their learning (Warschauer, 1996).

Furthermore, the internet allows students, peers teachers and the general public to share messages as well as different types of documents as e-portfolios. The internet has definitively contributed to the process of language learning due to a variety of uses (Warscahuer, 1996). Especially noteworthy are the contributions to this issue of the European Language Portfolio which is recognized as a central part of the Council of Europe’s long term

undertaking of teaching and learning Modern Languages in Europe (Hawresz, 2009).

 The Common European Framework favours “a general, action orientated communicative approach” (Hawresz, 2009, p.12) to communicate and learn. Simultaneously, learner autonomy is a foremost goal for the framework. At this point, it is crucial to help the learner develop a sense of responsibility for their own learning.  Consequently, the role of the teacher is crucial to increasingly enhance a critical attitude towards learning on the student. Therefore, language teaching should posses a communicative purpose sustaining the maturation of learner autonomy (Hawresz, 2009).

According to Kohonen (2001), a language portfolio refers to a purposefully collection of students work which evidences the student’s efforts, progress and accomplishments considering the set up objectives. From single productions such as short written texts to students reflections and videos are examples of portfolios tasks (Kohonen, 2001). In this fashion, the role of the teacher is crucial within the implementation of this pedagogic tool.

 The teacher should accompany the student while helping them to develop their knowledge of themselves as language learners attending not only to their individual needs but also to their social learning performance. Kohonen (2004) supports the view that reflection on the learning process should be enhanced. In other words, the student may be asked to reflect on his/her own process through open or close questions or open -ended reflections as a way of using the language for critical analysis of their own work.

 During this process, it is expected they acquire “tools for the self-assessment of their language skills” (Kohonen, 2004, p.31). Besides, the learner responsibility is fostered towards a more independent use of the language. With the implementation of e-learning there is a move towards collaborative learning and e-portfolios are part of this shift. Luchoomun, Mc Lucky and Wesel (2010) claim that the usage of e-portfolios abets collaborative learning among other forms of learning. The belief is that students gather pieces of work and reflect on their achievements together with peers and the teacher. Then, greater interaction is expected to arise as students are demanded the most challenging tasks (Luchoomun et al., 2010).

By the same token, e-portfolios are flexible tools which allow students to work with the language leaning on the skills they possess in pursue of creating texts for communicative purposes. Similarly, Kohonen (2004) claims that mixed-ability classes benefit the implementation of e-portfolios since more talented students may help less able peers in the classroom. It is the teacher’s commitment to guide learners while encourage hard work resorting to various language abilities with the intention of helping students “become more independent language learners and users” (Kohonen, 2004).

Delimitations

This research will be carried out at an urban state-run school which includes secondary level It is a school of six hundred middle-class students. There are six courses of each division and each group is made up of thirty students at the most. The school has got facilities such as heating and electricity. Moreover, there are tape recorders, a library and net books with internet connection.

Limitations

Though the main aim of e-portfolio implementation is to stimulate cooperative learning while making use of modern technologies within the classroom environment, some constrains may arise.

One of the most significant drawbacks is time limitation due to students are exposed to two-hour period of English per week. It seems that this type of work demands a lot of student-student and student-teacher interaction in order to constructively interchange ideas, knowledge and reflections.

Then, another potential setback that may hamper the result of this research is students’ previous knowledge about modern technologies. Even though the great majority of students use the internet, it may occur that some learners possess more basic knowledge as regards modern technologies. Then, it is the teacher who may suggest other more knowledgeable student to assist these learners.

Participants

´The participants of this research will be students in first year of Secondary level. This course is made up of twenty six students whose ages range from twelve to thirteen years old. They have English classes twice a week lasting an hour each class. However, it is important to mention that a reduced number of students take private classes of English in different institutions. On average, students have been in touch with the language since fourth year at primary school.

Materials

In order to systematize the use of e-portfolios, specific guidance is given to students on what they are expected to include in their work (Appendix A). Each student has the possibility of personalizing the portfolio by adding photos, videos and opinions on each section. An assessment sheet is handled to students so as to obtain a clear picture of their reflections and opinions on the usage of this pedagogic tool as a gadget for learning (Appendix B).  Besides, the teacher fulfills observation cards along the process in order to assess students’ progress and usage of this tool.

Procedures

The teacher will work on different topics such as personal information, habits, routine, etc (Appendix A). Then students are required to write texts, record videos, take pictures illustrating each of the topics. These texts and visuals will be uploaded to their portfolios at school after students and teacher have shared and analyzed their drafts. Then, students and teacher will meet to reflect on the usage of the portfolios and their achievements as well (Appendix B). After this discussion, each student will be given an assessment report on the teacher’s analysis of each of their e-portfolios final product and learning process (Appendix C).

Conclusions

On balance, we believe there are a great number of advantages to the usage of modern technologies in particular e-portfolios to the classroom. E-portfolios provide students and teachers with various opportunities to learn and use the language for communicative purposes. Furthermore, collaborative learning is promoted as different constrains arise, being the teacher and peers support essential factors for overcoming difficulties. Therefore, we believe that e-portfolios are flexible tools in ESL classrooms which may be utilized according to the teacher’s purpose in view of the learner’s needs.

References

Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (4^th ed.). New York, US: Longman.

Hawresz, A. (2009).  Unit 2: Curriculum Content. Universidad CAECE. Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Kohonen, V.(2001).  Developing the European language portfolio as a pedagogical instrument for advancing student autonomy. Available on the website: https://www.uta.fi/laitokset/okl/tokl/projektit/eks/pdf/kohonen2001.pdf

Kohonen, V.(2004). On the pedagogical significance of the European Language Portfolio: findings of the Fininsh pilot project. Available on the website:

http://www.atriumlinguarum.org/contenido/Kohonen13.5.04.pdf

Luchoomun, D., Mc Luckie, J., & Wesel, M. (2010). Collaborative e-Learning: e-porfolios for assessment, teaching and learning. Electronic Journal of e-learning, 8, 21-30

Retrieved February 18, 2011 from

http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ880096.pdf

Warschauer, M. (1996) Computer assisted language learning: an introduction. In Fotos S. (Ed.) Multimedia language teaching, 3-20. Tokyo: Logos International.

Comparing and analyzing the structure of two Research Articles related to different fields

Comparing and analyzing the structure of two Research Articles related to different fields

The structure of Research Articles (RAs) varies according to the documentation style they follow. Most medicine papers adopt the Vancouver System while the majority of education papers mirror the American Psychological Association (APA) rules and standards. On average, readers may encounter Abstracts, Introductions, Literature Reviews, Methods, Results, Discussions, Recommendations and Conclusions sections in Research Articles. The following paper aims at comparing and analyzing the organization of a medicine and an education paper under the light of the American Psychological Association (APA) requisites.

With reference to the Abstract, it is defined as a brief summary of the article which enables readers to grasp the salient points discussed in each section of the paper. As regards the Introduction, APA (2009) claims that the problem is introduced while the research strategy is described. Admittedly, some relevant Literature Review is expected to be included within the Introduction or as a separate section. Regarding the Methods section, it elucidates how the research was carried out as well as including information related to the participants and the procedures utilized in the study (APA, 2009). The collected data is summarized and analyzed in the Results section (APA, 2009). As for the Discussion section, APA (2009) states, that the findings are evaluated and interpreted in this section. Finally, the Limitations of the research may be addressed alluding to irresolute problems (APA, 2009).

As for the medicine article, its Abstract seems to match the characteristics of informative Abstracts since it mainly describes the course of action undertaken by researchers. Moreover, it is a structured type. There are bolded subheadings which may focus on helping the reader identify the most important findings. Mora, Cook, Buring, Ridker and Lee (2007) provide keywords which are likely to help readers detect the topic of the research. By contrast, the Abstract in the education paper is unstructured. Though it is made up of an unbroken paragraph, García Laborda et al. (2001) offer an engaging Abstract accompanied with a list of useful keywords to readers. Both Abstracts seem concise and clearly organized so that readers may be attracted to read the full paper.

Mora et al. (2007) begin the introduction of the medicine paper by directly stating the hypothesis related to the developed topic while highlighting what needs to be discovered and learnt. However there is not a separate section in the medicine paper, the researchers shortly refer to prior studies attached to the topic of the research. Conversely, García Laborda (2011) acutely develops a complete literature review in the introduction of the education article. Though there is not a literature section heading, the introduction offers an exhaustive and concise text related to the Regression method which provides a crucial background to understand the importance of this research. In this sense, both RAs seem to attach significance to prior studies in order to help readers delve into the different researchers.

Regarding the Methods section in the medicine article, Mora (2007) et al.mention the study population as well as how data was obtained. Then, specific information is included under different subheadings. Nevertheless, García Laborda (2011) does not include a Methods sections, the subjects as well as how the results were obtained are described. It is probable that the researchers in the medicine field included detailed data related to the utilized methodologies so as to enable readers validate the obtained results.

Then again, both RAs differ the manner in which the content included in the Results and Discussions section is organized. Mora et al. (2007) report the data in detail under the Results heading. Then, the results are evaluated and interpreted in the Discussions Section stating the unresolved matters. It seems of great significance the usage of tables to facilitate the understanding of the results. García Laborda (2011) makes use of a figure to illustrate how the Regression model is put into practice while tables are not included in this section of the education paper. It is highly likely that the researchers included tables due to the necessity of statistically reporting the data obtained while the Results and Discussions section in the education article, may aim at highlighting the steps the Regression model follows when being put into practice.

As regards the Conclusions, Mora et al. (2007) do not provide a heading to introduce their final comments. It is possible that the last paragraph of this RA confirms the hypothesis stated at the beginning of the research. To put it another way, Mora et al. (2007) claim “In this study, we have identified potential underlying mechanisms…” (Discussions section, para. 7). It is possible that both RAs emphasize the importance of their findings in their last lines of the section so as to clarify readers how the reading of the article empowers them. The writer of the education RA clearly highlights the outcomes obtained after carrying out the research though the usage of bullets under the Conclusions heading. Future impact and recommendations may have been included so as to provide prospective teachers trainers a wider panorama for future implementations of the model been described.

All in all, both RAs’ writers efficiently provide information divided into different sections in order to meet publishing requirements while respecting academic conventions. Had the researchers not developed their reports attending to documentation styles or incorporated figures, tables and comprehensible Literature reviews it would have been difficult to grasp the main concepts related to each field.  

References

American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication Manual (6^th ed.). British Library Cataloguing –in-Publication Data: Washington, DC.

García Laborda, J. (2011). Teacher training through the Regression Model in foreign language education. International Journal of Human Sciences, 8 (1). Retrieved from

http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED514554.pdf

Mora, S., Cook, N., Buring, J., Ridker, P., & Lee, M. (2007). Physical activity and reduced risk of cardiovascular events: potential mediating mechanisms. Journal of the American Heart Association. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.729939

Towards a deep analysis of research papers, their main similarities and differences

Learning to determine the relevance of a given resource is one of the core skills of the research process. The present work will examine two research articles; one belongs to the field of medicine and the other to the field of education. By deeply exploring both studies, a more complete understanding of the structure of academic papers will be achieved.  The introduction, literature review and methods section will be compared in order to focus on their main similarities and differences considering research papers’ layout and organization.

The researchers on the medicine field, Bessiére, Pressman, Keisler and Kraut (2010) deal with the effects of Internet use on health and depression, while the paper on the education field, refers to the strategies of coping with  effective teaching and learning in large secondary schools in Kampala District. Even though both studies provide clear views on each field, there are some similarities and differences as regards their organization which should be considered towards developing a deep understanding of both articles.

The first part to be analyzed is the introduction section. The initial sentence in the introduction section in the paper on medicine is a generalization statement which is used to refer to the idea of how fast the Internet has spread offering a load of information on health issues. The following sentence in the paper emphasizes the idea of the amount of people who used the Internet as a health tool in the year 2001 and 2009. Of particular interest is the fact that the reader’s attention is drawn by this statement which stresses the Internet use in relation to health ends and its effect not only on mental but also on physical state. In such manner, the researchers assert the importance of conducting the research. The past simple tense is used to report on the results of the findings in the field, while the present simple tense is used to address the importance of Internet use. It is certain that this introduction will arouse the reader’s curiosity.

The introduction in the education paper focuses on the strategies teachers should resort to dealing with teaching and learning in large classes in Secondary Schools in Kampala District. The term education is defined through a simple definition as education is considered “a key factor in the development of any society” (Sekiwu, 2009, para.1). The second sentence in the introduction of the article, describes the term through a comparative definition. That is to say, the concept of education is metaphorically described as a “backbone for social and economic prosperity.” (Sekiwu, 2009, para.1). Then, the researcher exemplifies the benefits education brings to society by the usage of the conjunction as. It is highly probable the reader will be eager to explore this article after the researcher’s claim for the importance of education to humankind.

Following the researchers’ organizational patterns, in papers, three moves or cycles may be analyzed and compared to detect relevant information (Pintos and Crimi, 2010). In the field of medicine, the researchers had reviewed previous research on The United States Internet uses in the year 2001. Thus, the necessary data is collected to compare it with more recent reports. The past simple tense is used to compare the results while establishing the research territory.

As regards the paper on the education field, the researcher mentions the United Declaration of providing basic education to schools in 1998. This data constitutes the background information and evidences the researcher’s previous research with the purpose of grasping the present situation in the educational sector in this particular district. The present perfect tense and the present simple tense are used to address to what has been done and what is currently occurring as regards the legal aspect of providing basic education. Despite the fact both authors have undergone a deep analysis in order to establish the research with the purpose of establishing the research territory, Sekiwu (2009) has developed the literature review isolated from the introduction while Bessiére, et al. (2010) may have embedded it in the introduction section due to organization requirements.

In order to signify a gap in previous research, the researcher in the area of medicine, implies contrast by using the conjunction although, so as to highlight that even though the Internet provides a big deal of information, much of it is not trustful. In this regard, the researcher implies there is research worth carrying it out. Moreover, the word little, is used to indicate a lack of reliable information about the impact Internet produces on people who search the web looking for health resources.

 However is the conjunction selected by Sekiwu (2009) to imply there is a gap which deserves to be observed and analyzed. In other words, according to reports, not enough secondary schools have been constructed. Consequently, there is an increasing tendency for overpopulation at Kampala’s schools. Both researchers have clearly emphasized gaps in the studies which provide the area to be fulfilled in the next section of the article. A considerable number of conjunctions have been used to stress the flawless in the corresponding fields.

In order to outline the purpose of study in the medicine paper, Bessière, et al. (2010), addresses data provided by a National US random household survey, stating that the purpose of this paper is to study the impact of Internet use, as a health resource. The present simple tense is used to set the purpose of the paper. According to Sekiwu, (2009), the purpose of the paper is to search about the strategies various teachers handled to solve the problem of teaching in overpopulated schools. Three questions are displayed in order to anticipate what the paper will be about. The present simple tense and the present perfect tense are used in this section.

The literature review is included in the introduction section in the medicine paper. It is developed under two studies which contribute to the paper background information. Those sections deal with the usage of the Internet for nonmedical purposes and the Internet as a health resource. The literature review section in the area of education could be described as complete, detailed and interesting (Pintos, et al., 2010). Various writers and researchers are cited in order to conduct the investigation under the light of the following question “Can teachers plan for achieving proper teaching in large classes?” (Sekiwu, 2009, para.1).  The usage of this question anticipates the organization of the content of the following section in the paper. Furthermore, a vast number of researchers have been cited to give more validity to the study.

The last section to be analyzed is the methods section. In Besséire(et al., 2010) paper, the word method is centered but it is typed at the left margin while Swales and Feak (1994) (cited in Pintos et al., 2010) state that the word methods should be centered.  The procedure and the participants are included in this part. This section provides information about the procedure that has been followed for gathering the data. Moreover, it is mentioned that the participants voluntary agreed to contribute with the investigation. The word measure is typed at the left margin. Under this subheading, there is information about the demographic control variables. A wide range of procedures had been used to obtain and measure the findings. The past simple voice is used to address the steps in this section following Swales and Feak (1994) (cited in Pintos and Crimi, 2010) requirements for this section of the research.

The paper developed by Sekiwu (2009) does not include a methods section, but it refers to a methodology section, which describes the type of survey that had been used to obtain the information. It is highly likely that the author has used the word methodology instead of methods in order to meet publishing requirements. The researcher states the reasons for selecting a specific type of survey research. The population selected for conducting the research is made up of head teachers, teachers and students from purposively selected schools. The past simple passive voice is used in this section respecting APA rules (Pintos and Crimi, 2010).

On balance, it may be stated that it is worth analyzing different research papers to address their main points and general organization. It is of great importance the fact of knowing how research papers are developed in order to be aware of what section of the paper should include, and what information could be expected to get in each section, for a deep understanding of this academic field. A deep literature review, clear purposes for carrying out research and a knowledgeable selection of language devices will attract reader’s attention to worth reading pieces of academic texts.

References

Bessière, K., Pressman, S., Keisler, S., & Kraut, R. (2010). Effects of Internet use on health and depression: A longitudinal study. J Med Internet Res 2010; 12(1) e6. Retrieved from

http://www.jmir.org/2010/1/e6

Pintos, V. & Crimi Y. (2010) Unit 2: The research article: Introduction, literature review and methods section. Universidad CAECE. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved February, 2011 from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/file.php/84/ESP_UNIT_2.pdf

Sekiwu, D. (2009) Strategies of coping with effective teaching and learning in large classes in secondary schools in Kampala District. Retrieved May 20 from

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2gl/content%1f_storage-01/0000019b/80/44/03/b4.pdf

Analyzing and evaluating the structure of abstracts in research papers

Analyzing and evaluating the structure of abstracts in research papers

According to the American Psychological Association (APA) an abstract is a “brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article” (2009, p. 25). Abstracts may permit readers to appraisal the content of a paper. Accordingly, researchers are likely to create accurate abstracts with the intention of drawing the audience attention in order to delve them into the reading of the whole text (APA, 2009).  Thus, four abstracts will be analyzed and evaluated throughout this essay. Three of them belong to the medicine field and the other to the education sector. Their main similarities and differences will be considered from their structure and content perspective contrasted with APA (2009).

Research by Jorgensen, Zahl & Gotzche (2009), deals with breast cancer mortality in organized mammography whereas research by Wijeysundera, Beattie, Elliot, Austin, Hux and  Laupacis (2009), involves non-invasive cardiac stress testing before non-cardiac surgery. The third article on medicine developed by Martinez, Assimes, Dell´Aniello & Suissa (2009), pertains to the use of venalfaxine compared with other antidepressants and the risk of sudden cardiac death or near death. The study on the education sector conducted by Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo & Gastaldo (2005), focuses on the differences in the knowledge of the technological resources in professors starting for gender, age and center type.

A thorough abstract analysis will be conducted attending to APA (2009) requirements, rules and style as regards abstracts’ layout and structure. APA (2009) rules for formatting abstracts state that researchers are advised to “ begin the abstract on a new page… the label abstract should appear in uppercase and lower case letters, centered at the top of the page” (p.27). Under the light of the previous rule, the papers on medicine field may not meet APA (2009) requirements as the term abstract is typed in uppercase letters placed in the left-hand corner. Moreover, none of the medicine abstracts have been typed in a separate sheet. In view of this theory, the abstract on the education field seems to respect APA (2009) standards.

It is of great importance the fact of considering the type of abstract to be analyzed. Within the four papers, the articles on medicine may mirror the characteristics of informative abstracts due to they seem to be heavy on data while the course of action undertaken by the researchers is described (Pintos, 2009). Thus, the paper on the education sector could be characterized as an unstructured abstract since it is developed through a block paragraph in which the different sections could be identified though the lack of subheadings.

Then, another important issue under our analysis is the abstract structure in the four articles. The papers on the medicine field seem to share the same bold headings which refer to the sections to be included in the body of the papers. The usage of these subheadings may meet the standards and requirements of APA (2009). The majority of the abstracts in the medicine field may probably share the same subheadings due to publishing requirements in the field. However, there are no subheadings in the education paper, the word abstract is typed in uppercase letters and centered meeting APA (2009) rules and conventions.

With reference to the number of words and sentences, it would appear that the abstracts on medicine as well as the abstract on education match APA (2009) rules as regards the number of words or the number of sentences established. The medicine paper contains eleven to thirteen sentences while the abstract on education is written in no more than one hundred and sixty words. It is of our concerned the inclusion of keywords for readers to “find works in databases and websites” (as cited in Pintos, 2009, p.33). The researchers on the education field might have chosen to offer readers a keyword list respecting APA (2009) conventions since this word is centered and italicized.

The past simple tense passive voice has been used by the researchers in the medicine field. In this respect there is a high possibility that Jorgensen et al. (2009), Wijeysundera et al., (2009), and Martinez et al. (2009), have selected the past tense passive voice to help the readers focus on the course of action undertaken by the researchers as well as on the results obtained after the research stage and on the findings. Conversely, Alemrich et al., (2005), may have preferred the usage of present simple tense active voice in their abstract. The usage of verbal tenses as well as tense mobility seems a hard issue to be considered by researchers when writing abstracts (Swales and Freak, 1998) (cited in Pintos, 2009).

Through the analysis of the four abstracts from the perspective of linguistic features, it may be stated that abstracts on the medicine field do not contain complete sentences. The impersonal passive has been used while negatives have been avoided. Digital numbers could be found in the results section of all the abstracts. Then, the abstract on education is developed through full sentences. Furthermore, digital numbers have been used by the researchers. Almerich et al., (2005) may have used jargon language to refer to the type of model used for results gathering. Based on the grounds of the information included in the four abstracts it may be conclude that they would meet APA (2009) rules and requirements, with the exception of the usage of incomplete statements and jargon language (APA, 2009).

All in all, it may be concluded that the process of abstract writing requires a prodigious knowledge on summary writing together with accurate academic writing skills. Considering the possibility of attracting readers to read the whole text, should be another central issue for researchers to be developed through the first piece of text the audience may be faced with. The analyzed abstracts seem to partially match APA (2009) rules, requirements and conventions for academic abstracts under the light of the addressed theory. The variations found in the abstracts of the papers would have been produced by the researchers in pursuance of meeting publishing requisites.

References

Almerich, G., Suárez, J. M.., Orellana, N., Belloch, C., Bo, R., & Gastaldo, I. (2005). Differences in the knowledge of the technological resources in professors starting for gender, type and center type. [Abstract]  RELIEVE, v. 11, n. 2, p. 127-146. Retrieved from

    http://www.uv.es/RELIEVE/v11n2/RELIEVEv11n2_3.htm

 American Psychological Association (2009). Publication Manual (6th ed.). Washington,      DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.  

Jørgensen, K. J., Zahl, P. H., & Gøtzsche, P. C. (2009). Breast cancer mortality in organised mammography screening in Denmark: comparative study [Abstract] British Medical Journal 2010; 340:c1241.doi:10.1136/bmj.c1241

Martinez, C., Assimes, T. H., Mines, D., Dell’Aniello, S., & Suissa, S. (2009). Use of venlafaxine compared with other antidepressants and the risk of sudden cardiac death or near death: a nested case-control study [Abstract] British Medical Journal 2010;340:c249 doi:10.1136/bmj.c24

Pintos, V. (2009) Unit 4: Research articles: Abstracts. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires,

Argentina. Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4693tina.

Wijeysundera, D. N., Beattie, W. S., Elliot, R. F., Austin, P. C., Hux, J. E., & Laupacis, A.

(2009). Non-invasive cardiac stress testing before elective major non-cardiac surgery: population based cohort study [Abstract] British Medical Journal 2010; 340:b5526 doi:10.1136/bmj.b5526

Introduction section in a research article in medicine

Introductions in research papers are likely to be interesting as well as motivating pieces of writings. It is the researcher’s task to draw the reader’s attention to read the whole text. With respect to this issue, the reader may expect to encounter in the introduction of a paper, relevant data as regards previous research on the topic, a gap that deserves to be occupied and the main

purposes for the study according to American Psychological Association (2009). The literature review section may be embedded in this introduction or it could be written in isolation depending on publishers requirements. The introduction fragment in the medicine article written by Jorgensen, Zahl and Gotzsche (2010) offers a valuable reading which is worth examining.

It seems that the first sentence in the introduction of the article may be written with the intention of stating what has been done in the field. The researchers allude to this issue by referring to the reduced percentage in cancer mortality. By the usage of the conjunction however, the authors create the gap in the field in this section of the paper. The audience may be attracted to read the article as the authors claim the problems that may arise when using observational studies to appraisal the aftereffect of screening. Jorgensen et al., (2010) adduce to the purpose of study in an implicit manner since they do not clearly state it. It is likely that through the reading of the last part of the introduction the purpose may be inferred.

According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), three moves are likely to be present in introductions. In other words, researchers create a research scope (Move 1). Then, the reasons and motivations for conducting the research are established (Move 2) and the purposes for the study are set (Move 3). In their article Jogensen et al. (2010) in Move 1, comment on trials of mammography screening which have been conducted in recent years. Then, the need for conducting the research seems to be introduced by the usage of the conjunction however. In the case of Move 3, a hypothesis on breast cancer mortality is displayed perhaps with the intention of setting the purpose of the research.

Though there is not a literature review section to be analyzed in this paper, there is quantitative data to be considered as part of the literature review. The last paragraph of the introduction consists of a hypothesis the researchers have created on the results of the study. This hypothesis may announce their main findings but it may reveal sooner than expected one of their main findings. If the researchers had not mentioned their hypothesis in the introduction, the reader may have hypothesized on the issue. This theory may attract the reader or repel him or her.

All in all, it could be concluded that introductions are crucial to captivate readers. Whether the

researcher is able to do it or not, depends on his or her ability to write intelligent pieces of

introductions. The information provided in this section determines the reader’s desire to

embark on the text.

References

American Psychological Association (2009). Publication Manual (6th ed.). Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

Pintos & Crimi (2010) Unit 2: The research article: Introduction, literature review and methods section. Universidad CAECE. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved February 2011 from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/file.php/84/ESP_UNIT_2.pdf

Jorgensen, K. J., Zahl, P.H., & Gotzsche, P.C. (2010).  Breast cancer mortality in organised

mammography screening in Denmark: Comparative study. BMJ, 340 (c1241), 1-6. doi:10.1136/bmj.c1241

 

An insight into the similarities and differences between two research papers

Studying the structure of research papers provides the tools to grasp the tenets of academic research. By empirically examining two research articles, the former on the medicine field and the latter on the educational sector, we hope to produce a deeper understanding of the structure of research papers. The results, discussions and conclusions sections will be evaluated so as to focus on their main similarities and differences from the perspective of the articles’ layout and organization contrasted with the American Psychological Association (APA) rules and requirements for academic papers.

Research by Bessiére,  Pressman, Keisler and Kraut (2010) deals with the effects of internet use on health and depression whereas research by Zhang & Kenny (2010) illustrates the experiences of three international students when learning in an online distance education course. Though the articles seem to provide clear views on each field, their main similarities and differences will aid towards a deep understanding of each articles’ structure and content.

The first item to be compared is the structure of the articles. Within the medicine paper, the results section is separated from the discussions, limitations and conclusions. As regards the education paper, it is structured into the findings, the discussions and conclusions. The articles may contain different titles in their internal structure to meet the publisher’s field.

The results section aims at summarizing “the collected data and the analysis performed on those data” (American Psychological Association, 2009, p.32). It is highly likely that both articles meet the standards of APA (2009) as the data is disclosed in detail (APA, 2009, p.32). In view of the researchers’ findings and perhaps with the intention of providing readers with relevant information in a reduced space, Besiére et al. (2010) have utilized tables (Pintos and Crimi, 2010). It is probable that the displays partially match APA (2009) requirements since they seem to accomplish few of the basic rules concerning their formatting. Tough tables have a title, this is neither italicized nor written with each word capitalized (Pintos and Crimi, 2010).

 However no tables had been included in the educational paper, the researchers included various direct quotations to refer to the students’ feelings and ideas about participating in an online distance education course. The direct quotations in the education paper may meet APA requirements as they are introduced through signal phrases which alert the reader the following passage in the article, refers to students’ exact words. To put it another way, the researcher included phrases such as “Masahiro observed that…” (Zhang and Kenny, 2010, n.p.). No inverted commas are used due to they are long quotations (APA, 2009).

Especially interesting is the fact that both papers refer to the subjects who took part in the research as participants, though some researchers in the medicine field prefer the term subjects (Pintos and Crimi, 2010). There seems to be a focus on the participants as a

“sensitive term” (Pintos and Crimi, 2010 p.34) by the researchers in both fields.  Through this term, there is an appropriate identification of the sample involved in the research according to APA (2009). The results sections in both articles are developed in simple past tense meeting APA (2009) requirements as regards the usage of past verbal tenses for results. It is almost certain that the researchers have used past tenses to describe the outcomes of the research considering the questions or hypothesis of the article (Pintos and Crimi, 2010).

 According to APA (2009), the discussions section aims at evaluating and interpreting the implications of the results in connection with the original hypotheses. The introduction section, in the medicine article, is developed around a purposive statement which may refer the reader to the purpose of the study mentioned in the introduction of the paper. Then, the researchers evaluate the results of the study. Similarly, Zhang and Kenny (2010) draw the reader’s attention by clearly stating the restricting cultural conditions in the online learning environment. The development of the discussions section matches APA (2009) style.

Regarding the usage of modal verbs, the researchers on the medicine field have addressed various modals in order to refer to the different degrees of certainty of the results and their possible consequences. It is very probable that researchers apply modal verbs so as to avoid vehement conclusions (Pintos and Crimi, 2010).On the other hand, the researchers in the education area have used a few modal verbs in the discussions section. The simple present tense is used in both articles in the discussions. Both discussions are likely to match APA (2009) style and requirements in this part.

In view of the findings in the medicine article, the researchers have included a Limitations section to address the unresolved issues or the obstacles the study had encountered. “Our ability to generalize to the US population is limited because…” (Bessiére et al., 2010, n.p.)  According to APA (2009), “readers should receive clear, unambiguous and direct answers” (APA, 2009, p.36). In this sense, the limitations section could follow APA style as the language used focuses on the area which still needs to be improved considering the quality of health information research. Nonetheless, Zhang and Kenny (2010) have not emphasized the limitations or possible future investigations to excelling the research results under a Limitations section.

The American Psychological Association (2009), states that the term follow-up should be hyphenated whenever it functions as a noun or adjective. Under this principle, the last sentence in the limitations section mirrors APA rule as it reads, “suggesting the need for follow-up research in this area” (Bessiére, et al. 2010 n.p.).

With regards to the conclusions section, it should connect the different parts of the paper by referring to some ideas mentioned in the introduction. Relevant data based on what needs to be done in the future may also be included at this stage (APA, 2009). Bessiére et al. (2010), refer to what has been done in the area while stating the limitations uncovered in the research, summarizing the main points of the investigation.  Moreover, the need for additional research is emphasized as the authors claim “Additional research is needed to determine what…” (Bessiére et al., 2010, n.p.). Conversely, researchers in the education sector seem to give priority to the results obtained and the interpretations after conducting the research. In this perspective, Zhang and Kenny (2010) may be more concerned with the application of their research as the foundation for future investigations.

All in all, it could be concluded that through deep analysis of research papers, strong academic writing skills may be developed and improved. On condition that readers delve into academic reading by acutely analyzing sections such as results, discussions and conclusions, a deeper understanding of the academic field will be achieved. Broadly speaking, both research articles adhere to APA (2009) requirements while respecting documentation styles of the two fields.

References

Bessière, K., Pressman, S., Keisler, S. & Kraut, R. (2010) Effects of Internet use on health and depression: a longitudinal study. J Med Internet Res 2010; 12(1) Retrieved from:

http://www.jmir.org/2010/1/e6

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2009) (6^th ed.). Washington DC: British Library Cataloguing-in Publication Data.

Pintos, V. & Crimi, Y. (2010) Unit 2: The research article: introductions, literature reviews and methods sections. Universidad CAECE. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved February, 2011 from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/file.php/84/ESP_UNIT_2.pdf

Zhang, Z. & Kenny, R. (2010) Learning in an online distance education course: experiences of three international students (Vol.11, 1).Retrieved from:

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDOCS/data/ericdocs2slq/content_storage-01/0000019b/80/47/86/4e.pdf

New Academic dictionary

Towards an academic definition of  the term discourse community

With the intention of sharing the concept of discourse community, the codes and academic language used by groups of people should be considered for understanding the term under a social perspective. Then, “the idea of discourse community emerges from two other concepts- speech community and interpretive community” (cited in Pintos and Crimi, 2009, p. 12). Thus, the notion of discourse community emerges from social reflection based on academic discursive practices.

For a group of people to be part of a discourse community, there are certain requirements which should be considered following Swales’ (1990) list of basic criteria. In other words, when discourse community members share goals and they also favor participatory mechanisms as well as information exchange, addressing to community-specific genres, the group meets the basic requirements. In this perspective, the discourse community members use highly-specialized terminology evidencing a high level of expertise (cited in Pintos and Crimi, 2009).

Briefly, it may be concluded that the characteristics mentioned above give the tools to recognize discourse communities considering the theory to analyze reality. In this sense, Kelly Kleese (2004) claims that “its members have, over time; developed a common discourse that involves shared knowledge, common purposes, common relationships and similar attitudes and values” (para. 6).

References

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s Choice: An Open Memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved October 2010, from

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_29/ai_77481463

  

Pintos, V. & Crimi, Y. (2009) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved October, 2010 from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=6856

Towards an academic definition of the term critical incident

The term Critical Incident refers to a “method of reflective practice” (cited in Pintos and Crimi, p. 8, 2009). Following this definition, an incident may be described as an event which demands attention due to the situation which emerged before, during and after it.

Critical Incidents are then, a crucial tool for teachers reflecting upon their own practices and others. According to Flanagan (1954), there are steps for collecting information describing the incident. These steps share special significance while meeting prescribed criteria.

According to Fernández González, Elórtegui Escartín and Medina Pérez (2003), Critical Incidents provide the tools for teaching practices analysis. Through the usage of this tool the teacher observing and analyzing the situation as well as students, are faced with the real-classroom situations which deserve to be analyzed considering the causes and possible solutions attending the students’ context. Critical Incidents have proved usefulness in teaching practices.

References

Fernandez González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17- 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved October, 2010 from

http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107

Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved October, 2010 from

http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article

Pintos, V. & Crimi, Y. (2009) Unit 2: Personal narratives in teaching. Universidad CAECE. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved October, 2010 from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=6856